Bioproducts

Two inter-departmental projects in association with the Department of Electronics
made good progress, one of which is on the development of novel electroporation
equipment and the other is for a system for sterilising hospital wastes using microwave
technology. In an industry - institute collaborating project, a naked eye visible
agglutination assay for ascertaining the HIV infective status of human was developed,
and the technology is under transfer to the industry. Plastic wares suitable for biotech
research were developed in different forms like vials, tubes and micropipette tips.
Wettable polystyrene plates suitable for cell culture and ELISA plates to substitute the
imported ones have been developed.

Bioproducts are industrial and consumer goods manufactured from renewable resources. Although the emerging bioindustrial sector may be in its infancy, it is rapidly developing. Potential markets for bioproducts are wide-ranging and include polymers, lubricants, solvents, adhesives, herbicides and pharmaceuticals.

Sparked by consumer demand to reduce our dependence on non-renewable resources and powered by existing reserves of renewable forest and agricultural biomass, industry is seeking specialized facilities and expertise to help design, develop and demonstrate new biomass feedstocks, biorefining processes, and higher value bioproducts.

Food Biotechnology

Overview

Modern biotechnology refers to various scientific techniques used to produce specific desired traits in plants, animals or microorganisms through the use of genetic knowledge. Since its introduction to agriculture and food production in the early-1990’s, biotechnology has been utilized to develop new tools for improving productivity. In 2005, twenty-one countries planted biotech crops covering a total of 222 million acres. These crops include soybeans, corn, cotton, canola, papaya, and squash that are improved versions of the traditional varieties. In addition, rapid-rise yeast and an enzyme used to make cheese are both commonly produced through biotechnology.

Biotechnology is a broad term that applies to the use of living organisms and covers techniques that range from simple to sophisticated. For centuries people have crossbred related plants or animal species to develop useful new varieties or hybrids with advantageous traits, such as better taste or increased productivity. Traditional crossbreeding produces changes in the genetic makeup of a plant or animal. The process can be very time consuming as it is necessary to breed several generations in order to not only obtain the desired trait, but also remove numerous unwanted traits.

In contrast, modern agricultural biotechnology techniques, such as genetic engineering, allow for more precise development of crop and livestock varieties.

The genes that directly express desired traits, such as agronomic performance, are identified more readily. Therefore, the genetic makeup of food-producing crops and livestock can be improved more efficiently. Gene technology not only provides the potential to select the exact characteristics desired, but it also enables us to transfer genes for desired traits more precisely.

Crop Biotechnology

There are three main categories of biotechnology-enhanced crops in use or development.

• Enhanced input traits, such as herbicide tolerance, insect and virus protection, and tolerance to environmental stressors such as drought.
• Value-added output traits, such as corn with higher amounts of lysine for animal feed, or vegetable oils with increased levels of omega-3 fatty acids.
• Crops that produce pharmaceuticals or improve the processing of bio-based fuels.

Today, crops in production are primarily those with enhanced input traits.

Animal Biotechnology

The use of genetic information to improve livestock selection and breeding, referred to as animal genomics, is an important tool in agriculture today. Genomics information can also help in determining optimum nutritional needs for animals. This aids in consistent production of high-quality meat, eggs, or milk.

Cloning is another modern technology that facilitates breeding of the healthiest and most productive livestock. The genetic makeup of the animal is not changed in any way. In fact, this form of assisted reproduction allows livestock breeders to produce an identical twin of the best available animals, which is itself used to breed future generations. As of 2005, foods produced from cloned animals or their offspring were not yet commercially available.

Genetic engineering is another potential tool being explored in breeding programs for food-producing animals. Potential benefits of such advances may include animals that mature more quickly or have enhanced nutritional characteristics, such as pigs that produce pork higher in omega-3 fatty acids. The product that would most likely be ready for commercialization in the near future is a variety of salmon, currently under regulatory review, that grows to maturity more quickly than its non-biotech counterpart.

Growth and Acceptance

According to a 2005 report by the International Society for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications (ISAAA), crops enhanced through biotechnology were planted extensively in the U.S., Canada, Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Australia. These seven countries planted 208.7 million acres of biotech crops, or about 94 percent of the worldwide biotech crop acreage.

The second leading biotech crop producers were small-scale farms in countries that need to increase production to improve incomes in rural areas and supply growing urban populations. These countries included China, India, South Africa, Mexico, Philippines, Columbia, Honduras, and Iran, with acreage of 13.2 million. Small farms in Spain, Germany, Portugal, France, Czech Republic, and Romania accounted for an additional 350,000 acres of biotech crops in 2005.

Farmers have embraced biotechnology because it provides agronomic (agricultural) benefits. The precise agronomic performance of a given variety depends on the growing location, weather, and other factors. Fortunately, the positive impact of biotechnology on crop performance translates into benefits for the environment.

The National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy (NCFAP) found that in 2004, compared to 2003, the combined impact of the 11 biotech crops used in the U.S. resulted in 62 million fewer pounds of pesticides used. According to a recent, peer-reviewed study by PG Economics, biotech crops have created significant economic and environmental benefits since they were introduced in 1996. Moreover, biotech crops have reduced pesticide applications by 379 million pounds – an amount that could fill a 15-mile train of railcars. NCFAP also found that planting herbicide-tolerant crops allowed farmers to conserve soil by avoiding tilling (plowing) the soil frequently. The study by PG Economics also found that biotech crops allowed farmers to reduce tractor usage for tilling the soil, due to more effective weed control. This change in procedure saved 464 million gallons of diesel fuel and decreased greenhouse gas emissions (carbon dioxide) by 22 billion pounds. The reduction of greenhouse gas emissions is equivalent to taking five million cars off the road for a full year.

Moreover, crop performance and pest management, benefits of biotechnology, translate into economic benefits for farmers, as well as environmental benefits.

According to PG Economics, net income for farmers growing biotech crops increased by more than $27 billion globally over the period 1996-2004. U.S. farmers have planted more acres of biotech crops than any other country and consequently have received the largest additional income benefits, amounting to nearly $11 billion.

Consumer Acceptance

According to IFIC’s quantitative survey of US consumers (2006), overall, awareness of food biotechnology seems to incline consumers to be more, not less, favorably disposed to the technology. Specifically, these consumers are more likely to know these foods are in stores today, state likelihood to purchase the foods, and expect benefits from the technology.

Consumer opinion is split in regard to animal biotechnology. However consumers are more favorable once they understand “why” the technology is being utilized. For example, sixty percent of consumers confirm that the potential benefit of animal biotechnology improving “the quality and safety of food” would positively impact their impression of the technology. Furthermore, favorability may increase slightly with FDA assurances of safety of food produced using animal biotechnology.

An important aspect of the survey is that food safety and labeling concerns are solicited from consumers on an open ended basis, thereby allowing consumers to volunteer unprompted, top-of-mind concerns. On an open-ended basis, only one percent name biotechnology as a labeling issue. A majority of consumers state that there is no information that they would like to see added to food labels. Furthermore, more than half of consumers said they support the FDA’s current labeling policy for foods produced through biotechnology.

Food biotechnology meets with greater concern in some other world regions. Improved access to science-based, consumer-focused information about biotechnology is important in order to ensure that the global community realizes the benefits.

Regulation and Oversight

Three federal agencies share the regulatory oversight of biotechnology in the United States. Regulation is coordinated among the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), according to the intended use of the products. Throughout the regulatory process, each agency provides several opportunities for public comment.

Within USDA, the Biotechnology Regulatory Service (BRS), of the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), regulates field testing, movement, and importation of biotech crops and seed. BRS assesses agricultural and environmental safety of newly developed varieties during field-testing and prior to commercialization.

The EPA regulates the safe use of pesticides in agriculture, including pest-protection properties of plants developed using biotechnology. Therefore, EPA oversees field testing, as well as sale and distribution, of such crops in order to ensure safety for the environment and human health.

FDA has primary responsibility for ensuring safety and appropriate labeling of plant-derived foods and feed, including those developed using biotechnology. Developers of bioengineered foods consult with FDA on a voluntary basis prior to commercialization. During a consultation, FDA evaluates safety and nutritional information provided by the developer, including information on the food safety of any newly expressed compounds, and any changes in the levels of important nutrients, endogenous allergens, and natural toxicants. FDA considers a consultation complete once all safety and regulatory issues have been addressed.

FDA does not require labeling to indicate whether a food or food ingredient is a bioengineered product, just as it does not require labeling to indicate which conventional breeding techniques were used in developing a food plant. Rather, any significant differences in the food itself have to be disclosed on the label.

Regulation of meat, dairy, and eggs produced through biotechnology is in development. There is strong indication, as of 2005, that regulation will be handled differently for foods derived from cloned versus genetically engineered animals.

Around the world, biotech crops and foods are regulated everywhere they are grown and/or consumed. Additionally, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development and the United Nations’World Health Organization have put forth statements of support and guidance for individual governmental bodies that are developing regulations to improve consistency throughout the global community.

Bridging to the Future

Biotechnology is making a significant impact on food production, with great potential for future advancements. A strong regulatory system is in place in the U.S., based on the broad consensus regarding safety among the scientific community. Public debate continues, as with any new technology. Of course, consumers want to know what biotechnology will mean for the food we eat. Therefore, the international scientific community continues to assess and challenge biotechnology’s role in improving the food supply by addressing safety concerns and seeking a variety of solutions to our evolving agricultural, food production, food enjoyment, and human health needs.

Stem cells

esearch into the role of stem cells in mammalian physiology has
burgeoned over the past 20 years. Indeed, in 2007 Martin Evans,
Mario Capecchi and Oliver Smithies were recognised for their
rpioneering contributions to stem-cell research by being award the
Nobel Prize for Medicine. It is therefore timely to present this Nature Reviews
collection on stem cells — a selection of recent Reviews and Perspectives speci
chosen to provide an introduction to diverse aspects of stem cell research.
It is now over half a century since bone-marrow reconstitution experiments,
first indicated the existence of the haematopoietic stem cell (HSC). Its discover
awakened the field of stem-cell biology. In a Review on page S5, Anne Wilson a
Andreas Trumpp describe the recent progress in understanding the HSC bone
marrow microenvironment, known as the HSC niche. Such understanding will
allow expansion of HSCs for therapeutic use.
An important question being addressed by the stem-cell community is how
do stem cells age and how does this contribute to mammalian ageing? On pag
S19, Norman Sharpless and Ron DePinho discuss how certain stem cells obta
decreased regenerative capacity with advancing age, and how this has a role i
human age-related conditions such as frailty, atherosclerosis and type II diabe
Another disease in which stem cells are hypothesised to have a key role, is
cancer. Cancer stem cells are thought to maintain the growth of the tumour,
and the role of stem cells in brain tumours is the focus of the Review by Angelo
Vescovi, Rossella Galli and Brent Reynolds on page S30. Understanding the
cellular and genetic mechanisms that control adult neurogenesis and brain
tumorigenesis should enable the development of new therapeutic strategies.
Finally, in a Perspective article on page S42 Shin-Ichi Nishikawa, Lars Marti
Jakt and Takumi Era discuss the technical challenge of studying early processe
mammalian embryogenesis — an essential area of study for further elucidatio
of the molecular mechanisms that govern stem-cell fate and the identification
specific stem-cell markers.

Medical Biotechnology

The recombinant V. cholerae VAI.3 strain has undergone toxicology studies and
animal efficacy. The DCGI has permitted to carry phase-I volunteer clinical trials. After
due clearance from GEAC, the phase-I trials conducted at two centres have been
completed successfully with no side-effects. There have been no side effects. The phase
II/III clinical trials have been planned under Jai Vigyan Mission Programme. The DNA
vaccine for rabies has also shown a high degree of efficacy in animals. The pre-clinical
toxicological studies and efficacy trails in a phased manner will now be taken up. The
Japanese Encephalitis Virus has been adapted successfully in Vero cell utilising micro-
carrier technology, the required number of virion to produce tissue-cultured vaccines has
been achieved. Immunogenecity studies are being carried out. Primer combinations
targeting 16S rRNA/23S rRNA of pathogenic mycobacteria have been designed which
are able to identify M. tuberculosis. This can be used as a rapid and specific diagnostic
tool for tuberculosis. Another set of primers targeting spacer region has potential for
molecular epidemiology of tuberculosis. Unique mutations have been identified in genes
encoding for M. tuberculosis resistance to INH, streptomycin, rifampicin. Primers have
been perfected to identify multi-drug resistant mtb. The system is now being evaluated in
clinical samples i.e. sputum, CSF etc. For the first time, primers have been designed
targeting kinesin gene, which can differentiate L. donovani strain obtained from cases of
visceral leishmaniasis from post kala-azar dermal leishmanoid. Plant-derived flavonoid
has high degree of anti-leishmanial activity both in vitro & in vivo. One of the
compounds, Luteolin is ready for human clinical trials. Complete genomic mapping of
chromosome 5&10 of L. donovani is being attempted to identify new target for drugs.
The studies have revealed that HIV-I subtype C with quasi species C3 is the predominant
HIV-I strain in circulation in India. Genomic analysis has revealed these strains to be
closer to strains from sub-Saharan African Continent. No significant cross clade immune

response has been observed. Such observation has direct relevance on designing
candidate vaccine for the country. HIV-viral bank is operational and has about 60 strains
of HIV- I and 5 strains of HIV-2.

The NE part of India had unique Rota viral strain which produces diarrhoea in
adults. The nucleotide sequence indicated that these strains to be closer to Chinese
strains and unrelated to the suggested rotavirus strain in circulation in other parts of the
country. This has necessitated development of rotavirus candidate vaccine for specific
regions.
About fourteen diagnostic technologies for communicable and non-communicable
diseases, which have been validated, are ready for further refinement and upscaling.
Negotiations have been held with industries which are interested to take up the prototype
technologies for commercialisation.
On the First National Technology Day, May 11, 1999, Leprovac an
immunomodulator for leprosy and two HIV diagnostic test systems were launched.

Plant Tissue Culture/Micropropagation

Plant cells can be grown in isolation from intact plants in tissue culture systems. The cells have the characteristics of callus cells, rather than other plant cell types. These are the cells that appear on cut surfaces when a plant is wounded and which gradually cover and seal the damaged area.

Pieces of plant tissue will slowly divide and grow into a colourless mass of cells if they are kept in special conditions. These are:

• initiated from the most appropriate plant tissue for the particular plant variety
• presence of a high concentration of auxin and cytokinin growth regulators in the growth media
• a growth medium containing organic and inorganic compounds to sustain the cells
• aseptic conditions during culture to exclude competition from microorganisms

The plant cells can grow on a solid surface as friable, pale-brown lumps (called callus), or as individual or small clusters of cells in a liquid medium called a suspension culture. These cells can be maintained indefinitely provided they are sub-cultured regularly into fresh growth medium.

Tissue culture cells generally lack the distinctive features of most plant cells. They have a small vacuole, lack chloroplasts and photosynthetic pathways and the structural or chemical features that distinguish so many cell types within the intact plant are absent. They are most similar to the undifferentiated cells found in meristematic regions which become fated to develop into each cell type as the plant grows. Tissue cultured cells can also be induced to re-differentiate into whole plants by alterations to the growth media.

Plant tissue cultures can be initiated from almost any part of a plant. The physiological state of the plant does have an influence on its response to attempts to initiate tissue culture. The parent plant must be healthy and free from obvious signs of disease or decay. The source, termed explant, may be dictated by the reason for carrying out the tissue culture. Younger tissue contains a higher proportion of actively dividing cells and is more responsive to a callus initiation programme. The plants themselves must be actively growing, and not about to enter a period of dormancy.

The exact conditions required to initiate and sustain plant cells in culture, or to regenerate intact plants from cultured cells, are different for each plant species. Each variety of a species will often have a particular set of cultural requirements. Despite all the knowledge that has been obtained about plant tissue culture during the twentieth century, these conditions have to be identified for each variety through experimentation.

Biofertlilizers

One of the major concerns in today's world is the pollution and contamination of soil. The use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides has caused tremendous harm to the environment. An answer to this is the biofertilizer, an environmentally friendly fertilizer now used in most countries. Biofertilizers are organisms that enrich the nutrient quality of soil. The main sources of biofertilizers are bacteria, fungi, and cynobacteria (blue-green algae). The most striking relationship that these have with plants is symbiosis, in which the partners derive benefits from each other.Plants have a number of relationships with fungi, bacteria, and algae, the most common of which are with mycorrhiza, rhizobium, and cyanophyceae. These are known to deliver a number of benefits including plant nutrition, disease resistance, and tolerance to adverse soil and climatic conditions. These techniques have proved to be successful biofertilizers that form a health relationship with the roots.

Biofertilizers will help solve such problems as increased salinity of the soil and chemical run-offs from the agricultural fields. Thus, biofertilizers are important if we are to ensure a healthy future for the generations to come.

Mycorrhiza

Mycorrhizae are a group of fungi that include a number of types based on the different structures formed inside or outside the root. These are specific fungi that match with a number of favourable parameters of the the host plant on which it grows. This includes soil type, the presence of particular chemicals in the soil types, and other conditions.

These fungi grow on the roots of these plants. In fact, seedlings that have mycorrhizal fungi growing on their roots survive better after transplantation and grow faster. The fungal symbiont gets shelter and food from the plant which, in turn, acquires an array of benefits such as better uptake of phosphorus, salinity and drought tolerance, maintenance of water balance, and overall increase in plant growth and development.

While selecting fungi, the right fungi have to be matched with the plant. There are specific fungi for vegetables, fodder crops, flowers, trees, etc.

Mycorrhizal fungi can increase the yield of a plot of land by 30%-40%. It can absorb phosphorus from the soil and pass it on to the plant. Mycorrhizal plants show higher tolerance to high soil temperatures, various soil- and root-borne pathogens, and heavy metal toxicity.

Legume-rhizobium relationship

Leguminous plants require high quantities of nitrogen compared to other plants. Nitrogen is
an inert gas and its uptake is possible only in fixed form, which is facilitated by the rhizobium
bacteria present in the nodules of the root system. The bacterium lives in the soil to form root
nodules (i.e. outgrowth on roots) in plants such as beans, gram, groundnut, and soybean.


Blue-green algae

Blue-green algae are considered the simplest, living autotrophic plants, i.e. organisms capable of building up food materials from inorganic matter. They are microscopic. Blue-green algae are widely distributed in the aquatic environment. Some of them are responsible for water blooms in stagnant water. They adapt to extreme weather conditions and are found in snow and in hot springs, where the water is 85 �C.

Certain blue-green algae live intimately with other organisms in a symbiotic relationship. Some are associated with the fungi in form of lichens. The ability of blue-green algae tophotosynthesize food and fix atmospheric nitrogen accounts for their symbiotic associations and also for their presence in paddy fields.

Blue-green algae are of immense economic value as they add organic matter to the soil and increase soil fertility. Barren alkaline lands in India have been reclaimed and made productive by inducing the proper growth of certain blue-green algae.

Biological control of plant pests, diseases and weeds through biotechnology

Under a time bound goal oriented programme for the large scale adaptation of the
biopesticide technology under IPM and their adaptation by the farmers, substantial area
of land was covered in various agroclimatic zones of the country for managing pests and
diseases of important regional crops. The cost of crop protection was optimised and
income/profit was maximised. An IPM module with various strategies has been
developed for green (organic) cotton. Under irrigated condition, the mean net profit in
IPM field was Rs.8010//ha. The pesticide residue analysis of cotton kapas showed that
none of the linked samples collected from the 22 farmers’ holdings had the residue above
the prescribed tolerance limit. Successful demonstration trials in this programme have
culminated as a recommendation by the State Dept. of Agriculture in various states. An
Indian Patent application entitled “A novel composition of a Fermentation Medium
useful for Economic Mass Production”, involving inexpensive industrial bio-products for
the mass production of spores of Trichoderma viride has been filed. Patents for mass
production technologies of Myrothecium verrucaria, Trichogramma, Beaveria bassiana
and Verticillium lecami have been taken at different centres. The biocontrol products
developed at various centres were distributed among the farmers free of cost and were
used in cotton, rice, groundnut, sunflower, pulses, sugarcane, tobacco, Chilli, and
vegetables. RRL, Jammu has transferred the technology as an integrated package for
biofertilizers and biopesticides to two industries viz., M/s Pratishta Industries Ltd.,
Secundrabad, A.P. and M/s Javeri Agro-industries & Investment Co. Ltd., Javeri Nursery
Premises, Amrawati, M.S. In addition, 5 new potential biopesticide technologies viz.
Aspergillus niger (fungal antagonist), Debaromyces hensenii (yeast antagonist),
Steinernema corpocapsea (nematode), internode borers lure (Sex pheromones); and H.
purea NPV (Baculovirus) against teak defoliators are being revalidated.
A major R&D programme on the role of biological resources for Integrated
Nutrient and Pest Management (INPM) for increasing agricultural productivity in
existing cropping system by way of managing their pest profile / incidence made a steady
progress.

Biotechnology in Agriculture

The best definition of biotechnology is the application of living organisms to develop new products. In the case of agriculture, genes coding for specific traits are combined with existing varieties and hybrids to produce crop plants that are capable of performing even better. Good examples of these are insect protected cotton and corn, and herbicide resistant crops such as soya, canola, corn and cotton. This technology also permits the combination of such traits into a single crop plant. In this way varieties and hybrids which are both herbicide and insect resistant are possible.

The benfits of growing such crops are many, and may be realised at most levels in society. Firstly, producers (farmers) benefits because input costs and management time are reduced. Insect protected crops do not require as many insecticide applications, and weed control with herbicide resistant crops is much easier to manage. Further, the increased efficiency of both insect and weed control, generally delivers higher yields.

Reduced insecticide applications also benefits the environment directly,since reduced volumes of environmentally unfriendly products are required to produce the same or higher yields. Indirectly, energy savings are made less pesticides need to be produced, and less fuel for transport and distribution of these chemicals are a consequence. In the USA, an estimated 600 000 gallons of fuel was saved in this way, due to the adoption of insect protected cotton by farmers. Further, great savings are also possible in the use of water, both in the pesticide production process, as well as directly, since less applications are made. In the same study in the USA, a saving of 94 million gallons of water was calculated (See insert). The point is that reducing the impact of farming on the environment brings benefits to the whole of society, not only the farmers.

In the developed world, there is an excess of food. Unfortunately, the same cannot be said of the developing world. The world population has increased from 2 to 6 billion in the last 60 years. It is expected to increase by another 2 billion odd in the next 20 years. 90% of this increase is expected to occur in the developing world, Asia, Africa and Latin America. Corn yields in the developed world average around 10-15 tons/hectare; in Africa the average yield is 1.4 tons/hectare. It is easy to see why there are 800 million malnourished people in the developing world. Most would agree that the demand for food in the developing world must be met in a sustainable way. Infrastructure to support the delivery of the wests surplus production to the developing world does not exist, and indeed, in times of famine, it is estimated that only about 10-20% of the food aid reaches its intended target. The answer is to equip farmers in the developing world to produce their own food in a sustainable way, at the point where it is required. Biotechnology is a part of this solution. Biotechnology can package the requirements for increased yield and quality of food in smart seeds , which produce crop plants capable of withstanding drought conditions and weed and insect attack, obviating the need for additional crop inputs, such as insecticides, which are often very costly.

Farmers in South Africa are in the enviable position of being able to utilise these technologies if they choose to. The GMO Act strictly regulates the approval and use of these crops and both commercial and small holder farmers have already realised the production benefits of these crops. North of the Limpopo, support for biotechnology is also increasing. Countries like Zimbabwe, Nigeria, Kenya, Uganda, Burkino Faso and Egypt are fast putting legislation in place so that such technologies can be utilised by their farmers. What is even more encouraging, is the fact that biotechnology capacity is also being built, which will result in an African capacity to harness these technologies. A good example of this is the Kenyan sweet potato project, in which virus resistant sweet potatoes have been developed using local expertise and capacity. In South Africa, a recently proposed Biotechnology Policy also supports the building of scientific capacity in this field, and the government has earmarked R182 million to get this kick started.

Unfortunately, some markets (consumers) in Europe are reluctant to accept foods produced from these technologies, even though a recent EU Commission report found that GM products were as safe as, if not safer than conventional products. This finding was based on 15 years of study over 81 different projects which cost US$64 Million. Artificial trade barriers have developed as a result, the best known of which is probably the case of Namibian red meat. Namibia does not import South African grain, because this would threaten their European export market. The South African grain could contain GM products. It is immaterial that there are no traces of these products found in the meat itself.

In conclusion, the huge benefits across all levels of society, which can accrue from agricultural biotechnology, especially in the developing world, will probably lead to the general acceptance of these products and technologies in the medium term. In South Africa, the first commercialisation of a biotech crop was in 1998, and adoption has risen steadily since then. In spite of the trade barriers, both local and export markets do exist for these products. As populations increase, and the demand for food with it, so the demand for safe foods at lower costs will too.

Biotechnology Definition

Biotechnology is most briefly defined as the art of utilizing living organisms and their products for the production of food, drink, medicine or for other benefits to the human race, or other animal species. Technically speaking, humans have been making use of biotechnology since they discovered farming, with the planting of seeds to control plant growth and crop production. Animal breeding is also a form of biotechnology. More recently, cross-pollination of plants and cross-breeding of animals were macro-biological techniques in biotechnology, used to enhance product quality and/or meet specific requirements or standards. The discovery of microorganisms and the subsequent burst of knowledge related to the causes of infectious diseases, antibiotics and immunizations could probably be counted among man’s most significant, life-altering discoveries.


However, the most modern techniques in biotechnology owe their existence to the discovery of DNA and several techniques essential for gene cloning. Current scientific methods are more specific than historical techniques, as scientists now directly alter genetic material with atomic precision, using techniques otherwise known as recombinant DNA technology.

History Of Biotechnology

The most practical use of biotechnology, which is still present today, is the cultivation of plants to produce food suitable to humans. Agriculture has been theorized to have become the dominant way of producing food since the Neolithic Revolution . The processes and methods of agriculture have been refined by other mechanical and biological sciences since its inception. Through early biotechnology, farmers were able to select the best suited and highest-yield crops to produce enough food to support a growing population. Other uses of biotechnology were required as crops and fields became increasingly large and difficult to maintain. Specific organisms and organism by-products were used to fertilize, restore nitrogen and control pests. Throughout the use of agriculture farmers have inadvertently altered the genetics of their crops through introducing them to new environments and breeding them with other plants--one of the first forms of biotechnology. Cultures such as those in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Pakistan developed the process of brewing beer. It is still done by the same basic method of using malted grains (containing enzymes) to convert starch from grains into sugar and then adding specific yeasts to produce beer. In this process the carbohydrates in the grains were broken down into alcohols such as ethanol. Ancient Indians also used the juices of the plant Ephedra Vulgaris and used to call it Soma. Later other cultures produced the process of Lactic acid Fermentation which allowed the fermentation and preservation of other forms of food. Fermentation was also used in this time period to produce leavened bread. Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until Louis Pasteur’s work in 1857, it is still the first use of biotechnology to convert a food source into another form.

Combinations of plants and other organisms were used as medications in many early civilizations. Since as early as 200 BC, people began to use disabled or minute amounts of infectious agents to immunize themselves against infections. These and similar processes have been refined in modern medicine and have led to many developments such as antibiotics, vaccines, and other methods of fighting sickness.

In the early twentieth century scientists gained a greater understanding of microbiology and explored ways of manufacturing specific products. In 1917, Chaim Weizmann first used a pure microbiological culture in an industrial process, that of manufacturing corn starch using Clostridiumto Acetobutylicum produce acetone, which the U.K.desperately needed to manufacture explosives during World War 1.

The field of modern biotechnology is thought to have largely begun on june 16, 1980, when U.S. Supreme Court ruled that a genetically modified micro organism could be patented in the case of Diamond V.Chakraborty Indian-born Amanda Chakrabarty, working for General Electic, had developed a bacterium (derived from the Pseudomonas genus) capable of breaking down crude oil, which he proposed to use in treating oil spills.

Revenue in the industry is expected to grow by 12.9% in 2008. Another factor influencing the biotechnology sector's success is improved intellectual property rights legislation -- and enforcement -- worldwide, as well as strengthened demand for medical and pharmaceutical products to cope with an ageing, and ailing, U.S. population.

Rising demand for biofuels is expected to be good news for the biotechnology sector, with the Department Of Energy estimating ethanol usage could reduce U.S. petroleum-derived fuel consumption by up to 30% by 2030. The biotechnology sector has allowed the U.S. farming industry to rapidly increase its supply of corn and soybeans -- the main inputs into biofuels -- by developing genetically-modified seeds which are resistant to pests and drought. By boosting farm productivity, biotechnology plays a crucial role in ensuring that biofuel production targets are met.